Winters are cold and windy with a lot of snow. Summers are rather hot and dry. In Siberia the temperature in winter falls to 50 degrees below zero. The coldest registered temperature was 70 degrees.
The animal world in the north includes the walrus, the seal, the polar bear and the polar fox. In the central zone there are a lot of wolves and foxes, hares and squirrels. The famous Russian furs come from the sable, mink and ermine. The brown bear of the Russian forests is a kind of symbol of Russia.
Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources. Three quarters of the country's minerals, oil and natural gas, coal, gold and diamonds come from Siberia.
The Russian Federation is a Presidential Republic. The federal government consists of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative powers are exercised by the Federal Assembly. It consists of two chambers: the Council of Federation and the State Duma. The executive power belongs to the government which is headed by the Prime Minister. The judicial branch is represented by the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and regional courts. All three branches are controlled by the President.
Today the flag of Russia is a three-coloured banner. The hymn of Russia is written by A. Alexandrov and S. Mikhalkov. A new national emblem is the two-headed eagle, the most ancient symbol of Russia.
Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources. Three quarters of the country's minerals, oil and natural gas, coal, gold and diamonds come from Siberia.
There are a lot of opportunities for our country to become one of the leading countries in the world. I'm sure that we, the younger generation, can do a lot to make Russia as strong and powerful as she used to be.
Russia - a Market-oriented Economy (Россия - страна с рыночной экономикой)
The assertion that Russia is a market-oriented economy has evoked doubt in the minds of many. The European Commission, Economics Ministers in various countries, and indeed numerous Russian economists themselves, have resisted Russia being accorded that status. They have taken the view that Russia is possibly on the way to being a market-oriented economy - but that it is too early to talk of our country joining a system with that kind of immunity-based" relationships. The fact is, however, that as of 1st April 2002 Russia has been formally accorded the status of "market-oriented economy".
The trend towards a market-oriented economy commenced with the disintegration of the Soviet Union. For 70 years the country had been run according to the dictates of totalitarian economics. The Soviet Union's economy was directed primarily towards strengthening the country's military might. The whole of industry was controlled and financed by the State: privately-run concerns were out of the question. Private initiative was either eradicated or allowed to exist only in the tight grip of the State's ideology. Any other form of economic activity, apart from that of a "state enterprise" or (to a certain extent) "cooperatives'', was prosecuted. For the most part industrial products did not meet the demands of the consumer either in quality or in quantity. The isolation of the Soviet economy from that of the rest of the world also harmed it greatly.
This all resulted in the need to reform the economy by introducing the principles of "market economics" - on the basis of "khozraschot" (plant-based financing) and "samookupayemosf" (product-based financing) within industry itself. During the 1980s a number of political changes were carried out, but these proved ineffective because of opposition from conservative elements. However, the 1991 "putsch" forced Russia to break with its past. With the collapse of the USSR a great number of problems emerged in the economy of Russia. The fact was that the economies of Russia and the constituent republics of the former USSR, together with those of the "socialist" countries of Eastern Europe, represented a unified system, fim» its disintegration greatly multiplied those economic problems.
Major changes have taken place over the past; 10-16 years. Various economic projects have been put forward, and numer¬ous economic reforms carried out. Some of these proved successful, others less so. The first symptoms of a market-oriented economy developing in Russia were the emergence of privately, run enterprises and the gradual spread of individual businesses. People with initiative and energy now had the chance not just to work, but to make money. Whereas the large industrial plants that had been wholly State-maintained went into decline, small enterprises began to develop. Limited-liability companies and stock companies came into existence. "Shares” and "securities” were instituted - which in itself was a further step in the direction of "a market economy”.
A securities market was created in Russia. Issuing of these securities was jointly facilitated by both State- and privately-owned industrial enterprises. "Securities” included bonds, bills of exchange, cheques, stocks and shares, "futures", and a whole range of similar items. Organisations and concerns issuing securities are referred to as "emitters”. A person owning a "security” is entitled to receive part of the stock company's profits in the form of dividends, and to have a say in the running of the company, as well as having a right to part of any assets remaining after the company goes into liquidation. Trading in securities is conducted in stock-exchanges and by broking organisations.
One further principle forms the basis of "a market-oriented economy” - namely, competition. The market mechanisms of supply and demand communicate the wishes of the consumer to the industrial producer, and through him to the supplier of production resources materials. Competition obliges companies to go over to the most efficient production methods available. In a competitive market any companies unable to apply the most economical production methods are ousted by their competitors, using production methods of maximum efficiency.
Competition promotes efficient distribution of resources. The competitive element in the market-oriented system channels resources into producing the commodities and services which society most needs. It dictates the use of the most effective methods of combining resources for production purposes; it also facilitates the development and implementation of novel, more efficient production methods.
In the meantime, inadequate attention to the development of the market-oriented aspects of the economy and to the principle of free enterprise, as well as excessive preoccupation with financial “pyramids", brought the country to an overwhelming financial crisis in August 1998. That crisis has set our country back five years. Only now is Russia's economy regaining the level it reached previously.
Russia's Foreign Policy (Внешняя политика России)
As is well known, in recent years substantial changes have taken place in Russia's Foreign policy. Compared to Soviet times, its recent policy reflects a very positive evolution. It is now characterised by a more balanced perception of "West" and "East” indeed, the tenor of Russia's Foreign policy now corresponds better to what is in national interests.
In the wake of the collapse of the USSR, Russia's government prioritised democratic reforms and the creating of a market-oriented economy. The shaping of its foreign policy followed thereafter. Most significant among changes in its foreign policy, both then and now, has been the development of cooperation within the framework of "the CIS".
When the Soviet Union disintegrated, Russia attempted to re-establish links between the former "Republics". An Agreement was signed on 8 December 1991 in the Belovezhsky Forest, Viskuli (seat of the Belorussian Government) - by the leaders of Belarus, Ukraine, and the Russian Federation - instituting a "Commonwealth of Independent States". That Commonwealth now includes - all on an equal footing - Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia, Moldova, Russia, Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine. The CIS Interparliamentary Assembly is based in St. Petersburg. The States jointly resolve economic issues, as well as questions relating to security, counter-terrorism and measures against extremists.
Equally important Is Russia's foreign policy in regard to Western Europe. The Soviet Union remained in a state of "cold war" with Western Europe and the United States for a considerable time. Over the past ten years our country has endeavoured to reciprocate the respect accorded us by Western countries and to conduct a dialogue with them. For example, the Russia-European Union "Paris Summit" adopted a Joint Declaration for increasing dialogue and cooperation in Europe on political issues and questions of security in Europe, The European Union is undoubtedly a promising partner for Russia - partnership is indeed now the characteristic of our relations with principal European countries. An Agreement on partnership and cooperation between Russia and the European Union has been set in motion. Preparation of major projects for economic cooperation is under way, including the field of safety in the power-generating industry.
Relations with the United States are attuned to long-term interests in particular. Russo-American "summit" meetings aim to promote constructive and mutually-beneficial bilateral relations and the strengthening of Russo-American coopera-tion on international questions. These include disarmament, non-proliferation, joint action to combat terrorism, as well as the extension of bilateral cooperation in various sectors - for example Russia joining the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
The "Shanghai Forum" was set up in 1996 - otherwise known as the "Shanghai Five". The leaders of Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia and Tadjikistan signed a joint declaration, identifying spheres of cooperation under the aegis of this organisation. Not many years later Uzbekistan joined this grouping.
Leaders of the "Shanghai forum" hold meetings at regular intervals to settle topical matters relating to mutual trust in the military field in frontier regions, mutual arms and force reductions in frontier regions also, and the extention of cooperation in regional security and also of commercial and economic interaction.
The guiding principle of Russia's foreign policy at the present time has been enunciated by President Vladimir Putin as follows: "Clear delineation of our national priorities, pragmatism, and economic efficiency."
Saint Petersburg
St. Petersburg is the second largest city in Russia and one of the most beautiful cities in the world. It was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great as the "Window on Europe St. Petersburg was the capital of Russia from 1712 till 1918.
The city was built on the swampy land at the mouth of the River Neva. Prominent European and Russian architects worked here. The new capital grew rapidly in wealth and beauty.
When World War I began in 1914, the German-sounding name St. Petersburg was changed to Petrograd. After the October Revolution the city was renamed in honour of Lenin. In 1991 the old name of St. Petersburg was returned to the city.
During the Great Patriotic War the city suffered a great deal. The German armies laid siege to it in 1941, and for the next two years and a half the city was cut off from the rest of the country. No food could be brought in, and people died of starvation. Daily shelling and air raids destroyed parts of the city. Thousands of people were killed. Rebuilding took years.
Now St. Petersburg is an industrial, cultural and scientific centre. There are over 80 museums, more than 20 theatres, a lot of exhibitions, clubs, universities, colleges, schools and parks. The Alexandrinski Drama Theatre, the Bolshoi Drama Theatre, the Mariinsky Theatre of Opera and Ballet are pearls of the Russian art.
In St. Petersburg there are a lot of parks and gardens where citizens spend their free time. The Summer Garden is the oldest and most fascinating park. Rare trees, bushes and flowers grow there. Beautiful marble statues made by Italian sculptors and a famous cast iron grille decorate the Summer Garden. There is a bronze monument to the prominent Russian writer of fables Ivan Krylov (by sculptor Klodt) in the Summer Garden.
St. Petersburg is famous for its magnificent architectural ensembles of the 18th and 19th centuries. The city began with the Peter and Paul Portress built to protect the Neva banks from Swedish invasion. Later Domeniko Trezzini, the famous Swiss architect, reconstructed the fortress.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
The animal world in the north includes the walrus, the seal, the polar bear and the polar fox. In the central zone there are a lot of wolves and foxes, hares and squirrels. The famous Russian furs come from the sable, mink and ermine. The brown bear of the Russian forests is a kind of symbol of Russia.
Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources. Three quarters of the country's minerals, oil and natural gas, coal, gold and diamonds come from Siberia.
The Russian Federation is a Presidential Republic. The federal government consists of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative powers are exercised by the Federal Assembly. It consists of two chambers: the Council of Federation and the State Duma. The executive power belongs to the government which is headed by the Prime Minister. The judicial branch is represented by the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and regional courts. All three branches are controlled by the President.
Today the flag of Russia is a three-coloured banner. The hymn of Russia is written by A. Alexandrov and S. Mikhalkov. A new national emblem is the two-headed eagle, the most ancient symbol of Russia.
Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources. Three quarters of the country's minerals, oil and natural gas, coal, gold and diamonds come from Siberia.
There are a lot of opportunities for our country to become one of the leading countries in the world. I'm sure that we, the younger generation, can do a lot to make Russia as strong and powerful as she used to be.
Russia - a Market-oriented Economy (Россия - страна с рыночной экономикой)
The assertion that Russia is a market-oriented economy has evoked doubt in the minds of many. The European Commission, Economics Ministers in various countries, and indeed numerous Russian economists themselves, have resisted Russia being accorded that status. They have taken the view that Russia is possibly on the way to being a market-oriented economy - but that it is too early to talk of our country joining a system with that kind of immunity-based" relationships. The fact is, however, that as of 1st April 2002 Russia has been formally accorded the status of "market-oriented economy".
The trend towards a market-oriented economy commenced with the disintegration of the Soviet Union. For 70 years the country had been run according to the dictates of totalitarian economics. The Soviet Union's economy was directed primarily towards strengthening the country's military might. The whole of industry was controlled and financed by the State: privately-run concerns were out of the question. Private initiative was either eradicated or allowed to exist only in the tight grip of the State's ideology. Any other form of economic activity, apart from that of a "state enterprise" or (to a certain extent) "cooperatives'', was prosecuted. For the most part industrial products did not meet the demands of the consumer either in quality or in quantity. The isolation of the Soviet economy from that of the rest of the world also harmed it greatly.
This all resulted in the need to reform the economy by introducing the principles of "market economics" - on the basis of "khozraschot" (plant-based financing) and "samookupayemosf" (product-based financing) within industry itself. During the 1980s a number of political changes were carried out, but these proved ineffective because of opposition from conservative elements. However, the 1991 "putsch" forced Russia to break with its past. With the collapse of the USSR a great number of problems emerged in the economy of Russia. The fact was that the economies of Russia and the constituent republics of the former USSR, together with those of the "socialist" countries of Eastern Europe, represented a unified system, fim» its disintegration greatly multiplied those economic problems.
Major changes have taken place over the past; 10-16 years. Various economic projects have been put forward, and numer¬ous economic reforms carried out. Some of these proved successful, others less so. The first symptoms of a market-oriented economy developing in Russia were the emergence of privately, run enterprises and the gradual spread of individual businesses. People with initiative and energy now had the chance not just to work, but to make money. Whereas the large industrial plants that had been wholly State-maintained went into decline, small enterprises began to develop. Limited-liability companies and stock companies came into existence. "Shares” and "securities” were instituted - which in itself was a further step in the direction of "a market economy”.
A securities market was created in Russia. Issuing of these securities was jointly facilitated by both State- and privately-owned industrial enterprises. "Securities” included bonds, bills of exchange, cheques, stocks and shares, "futures", and a whole range of similar items. Organisations and concerns issuing securities are referred to as "emitters”. A person owning a "security” is entitled to receive part of the stock company's profits in the form of dividends, and to have a say in the running of the company, as well as having a right to part of any assets remaining after the company goes into liquidation. Trading in securities is conducted in stock-exchanges and by broking organisations.
One further principle forms the basis of "a market-oriented economy” - namely, competition. The market mechanisms of supply and demand communicate the wishes of the consumer to the industrial producer, and through him to the supplier of production resources materials. Competition obliges companies to go over to the most efficient production methods available. In a competitive market any companies unable to apply the most economical production methods are ousted by their competitors, using production methods of maximum efficiency.
Competition promotes efficient distribution of resources. The competitive element in the market-oriented system channels resources into producing the commodities and services which society most needs. It dictates the use of the most effective methods of combining resources for production purposes; it also facilitates the development and implementation of novel, more efficient production methods.
In the meantime, inadequate attention to the development of the market-oriented aspects of the economy and to the principle of free enterprise, as well as excessive preoccupation with financial “pyramids", brought the country to an overwhelming financial crisis in August 1998. That crisis has set our country back five years. Only now is Russia's economy regaining the level it reached previously.
Russia's Foreign Policy (Внешняя политика России)
As is well known, in recent years substantial changes have taken place in Russia's Foreign policy. Compared to Soviet times, its recent policy reflects a very positive evolution. It is now characterised by a more balanced perception of "West" and "East” indeed, the tenor of Russia's Foreign policy now corresponds better to what is in national interests.
In the wake of the collapse of the USSR, Russia's government prioritised democratic reforms and the creating of a market-oriented economy. The shaping of its foreign policy followed thereafter. Most significant among changes in its foreign policy, both then and now, has been the development of cooperation within the framework of "the CIS".
When the Soviet Union disintegrated, Russia attempted to re-establish links between the former "Republics". An Agreement was signed on 8 December 1991 in the Belovezhsky Forest, Viskuli (seat of the Belorussian Government) - by the leaders of Belarus, Ukraine, and the Russian Federation - instituting a "Commonwealth of Independent States". That Commonwealth now includes - all on an equal footing - Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia, Moldova, Russia, Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine. The CIS Interparliamentary Assembly is based in St. Petersburg. The States jointly resolve economic issues, as well as questions relating to security, counter-terrorism and measures against extremists.
Equally important Is Russia's foreign policy in regard to Western Europe. The Soviet Union remained in a state of "cold war" with Western Europe and the United States for a considerable time. Over the past ten years our country has endeavoured to reciprocate the respect accorded us by Western countries and to conduct a dialogue with them. For example, the Russia-European Union "Paris Summit" adopted a Joint Declaration for increasing dialogue and cooperation in Europe on political issues and questions of security in Europe, The European Union is undoubtedly a promising partner for Russia - partnership is indeed now the characteristic of our relations with principal European countries. An Agreement on partnership and cooperation between Russia and the European Union has been set in motion. Preparation of major projects for economic cooperation is under way, including the field of safety in the power-generating industry.
Relations with the United States are attuned to long-term interests in particular. Russo-American "summit" meetings aim to promote constructive and mutually-beneficial bilateral relations and the strengthening of Russo-American coopera-tion on international questions. These include disarmament, non-proliferation, joint action to combat terrorism, as well as the extension of bilateral cooperation in various sectors - for example Russia joining the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
The "Shanghai Forum" was set up in 1996 - otherwise known as the "Shanghai Five". The leaders of Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia and Tadjikistan signed a joint declaration, identifying spheres of cooperation under the aegis of this organisation. Not many years later Uzbekistan joined this grouping.
Leaders of the "Shanghai forum" hold meetings at regular intervals to settle topical matters relating to mutual trust in the military field in frontier regions, mutual arms and force reductions in frontier regions also, and the extention of cooperation in regional security and also of commercial and economic interaction.
The guiding principle of Russia's foreign policy at the present time has been enunciated by President Vladimir Putin as follows: "Clear delineation of our national priorities, pragmatism, and economic efficiency."
Saint Petersburg
St. Petersburg is the second largest city in Russia and one of the most beautiful cities in the world. It was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great as the "Window on Europe St. Petersburg was the capital of Russia from 1712 till 1918.
The city was built on the swampy land at the mouth of the River Neva. Prominent European and Russian architects worked here. The new capital grew rapidly in wealth and beauty.
When World War I began in 1914, the German-sounding name St. Petersburg was changed to Petrograd. After the October Revolution the city was renamed in honour of Lenin. In 1991 the old name of St. Petersburg was returned to the city.
During the Great Patriotic War the city suffered a great deal. The German armies laid siege to it in 1941, and for the next two years and a half the city was cut off from the rest of the country. No food could be brought in, and people died of starvation. Daily shelling and air raids destroyed parts of the city. Thousands of people were killed. Rebuilding took years.
Now St. Petersburg is an industrial, cultural and scientific centre. There are over 80 museums, more than 20 theatres, a lot of exhibitions, clubs, universities, colleges, schools and parks. The Alexandrinski Drama Theatre, the Bolshoi Drama Theatre, the Mariinsky Theatre of Opera and Ballet are pearls of the Russian art.
In St. Petersburg there are a lot of parks and gardens where citizens spend their free time. The Summer Garden is the oldest and most fascinating park. Rare trees, bushes and flowers grow there. Beautiful marble statues made by Italian sculptors and a famous cast iron grille decorate the Summer Garden. There is a bronze monument to the prominent Russian writer of fables Ivan Krylov (by sculptor Klodt) in the Summer Garden.
St. Petersburg is famous for its magnificent architectural ensembles of the 18th and 19th centuries. The city began with the Peter and Paul Portress built to protect the Neva banks from Swedish invasion. Later Domeniko Trezzini, the famous Swiss architect, reconstructed the fortress.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37